Intangible Cultural Heritage
Intangible Cultural Heritage
Narrating and Documenting the Art of Dry Stone Walling
The program “Narrating and Documenting the Art of Dry Stone Walling”, which is being carried out with the Municipal Welfare Enterprise for Environment, Education & Development of Mykonos as the main entity and the Urban Planning Research Laboratory of NTUA as a collaborating entity, within the framework of the funded program, the “Cycladic Identity” initiative of the Museum of Cycladic Art.
The objective of the above research project is the collection and indexing of material related to the art of dry stone walling in Mykonos, aiming to preserve knowledge, techniques, and tools, as well as traditional local methods and oral testimonies. The main goal is a systematic research to collect the necessary material by the research team and through an effort to highlight the art of dry stone walling as one of the main cultural resources in Mykonos and internationally, through material that has been written either about Mykonos or nationally and internationally.
Main Objectives of the Program
Specifically, the main objective of this proposal is to create an open and continuously updated website documenting dry stone walls and their traditional construction method, combining older archival material (photographs, archives, sketches), and recording the remaining craftsmen (video, audio recording). Secondarily, a pilot “dry stone walling school” will be organized with the participation of traditional craftsmen and new artisans.
Funding
Project Team
Implementation
Social Media
“Dry Stone Walling”
Dry stone walls, also known as “pezoules” are built “dry”, without the use of binding mortar and are found in zonal areas of multiple settlements throughout Greece. It is the most important factor in preserving the Cycladic landscape as it slows down erosion, since low vegetation and dry climate dominate.
Dry stone walls, or more correctly boundary walls, run through all the islands creating terraces and enclosing the land belonging to the islanders. They were created to meet the human need for survival by adapting vital natural resources. They serve to retain water and define property boundaries. They are usually used in mountainous settlements of the country, but also in island settlements with a stepped structure, like Mykonos. A characteristic point is the unique break in construction to form an opening, called empati, “ombati” or “ambasia” depending on the region, for communication and access to the field. This narrow passage is blocked with dry branches or stones and etymologically means “to enter”.
Views of dry stone walling in the 60s
Source: Deutsche Fotothek, 1963
The Art of Dry Stone Walling
The terraced landscape of dry stone walls in Maou. Photo: Katerina Zouganeli
The Cyclades have a dry Mediterranean climate, with hot and dry summers and mild, relatively wet winters. Following the course of architecture in the Mediterranean and the timeless use of large stones, the Cycladic islands rely on stone constructions due to the abundance of stone and the arid nature of the place. Dry stone walls, therefore, do not only respond to a need for property, but also to a need for aesthetic dialogue with the landscape and exploitation of the place with its own means. Aristidis Romanos in his book about Mykonos (Romanos, 1983), points out that “the most interesting events and characteristics of the historical evolution of the place are precisely those that describe the often agonizing effort of its inhabitants to devise a way of survival on a rocky place”.
Combining the above, the rocky nature of the Cyclades creates a multi-sensory landscape, where the place regulates life and lays the foundations for the development of culture, through the necessary and the useful. The “dry stone wall” known in Mykonos was invented to cover basic needs of distinguishing grazing areas.
Ecological Value and Microclimate
Dry stone walls are an example of mild and ecological construction, which fits perfectly into the natural environment, with the possibility of full recycling of its materials, while at the same time being witnesses of continuous human activity in the countryside (ELLET). Rural roads function, as Triamataki says (Triamataki, 2017) “like the arteries of an organism that nourish each cell”, operating on three levels of connection:
Of settlements with the countryside
Individual scattered constructions
Property boundary and natural space.
The greatest benefit, however, is that dry stone walls are an ecological way of separating areas, as they do not disturb the natural habitat. They are considered a way of recycling useless materials (stones already present in the fields) and their benefits are multiple, as they create a local microclimate from the solar energy released at night. Thus, the temperature variation near dry stone walls is more stable. This microclimate shows similarities with other dry environments, which are characterized by lack of water and high temperatures.
Dry stone constructions create a thermal environment more favorable than the dry climate of the Cyclades. During the summer months, during the day, the humidity in the gaps between joints is high, while the temperature is clearly lower than the external one. Thus, they function as a pocket of the arid and hot climate of the countryside. Furthermore, through the conductivity of the wall mass, solar heat is stored and the construction (stone) functions thermally, as during the day a large amount of heat is stored and released with a phase difference at night, benefiting the crops near the dry stone walls. The thermal parameters that prevail, specifically the ability of stones to heat up quickly and maintain this heat even after sunset, make them particularly important thermal regulation sites.
The microclimate formed between dry stone walls
Photo: Anneta Papoutsa
The yellow lichen
Photo: Katerina Zouganeli
Regarding the microclimate that develops, many animals, plants, and other microorganisms friendly to agricultural production live in the stone environment, in cracks/fissures/cavities, etc., forming elements of the agricultural biotope and favoring the balance of the flora and fauna ecosystem. On these walls, we encounter various species of lichens. Botanists classify them into a special category, which includes amaranth and soapwort. Both grow on the top of dry stone walls and in the cavities of the walls where rooting is possible. Depending on the degree of shading, orientation, or age of the structures, plant species differ, as well as the degree of wall coverage. Clearly, species vary greatly from place to place, depending on the geographical location (climate, altitude, distance from the sea, etc.).
Regarding animals, various species of lizards and snakes are observed, as well as hedgehogs, various rodents, and some small birds. Invertebrate species that survive in high temperatures predominate, while in Mykonos, among others, the “krokodeilakia” find refuge there. In other words, this is a lizard named “land crocodile” (“Agama stellio mykonensis”), larger in size and with a “spiny appearance”, found on the barren rocks of the island. In the same category is the “kolosauros”, also found in Tinos, which has a greenish appearance and golden-yellow sides. Additionally, the island’s fauna includes smaller lizards (saurades or samiamides), as well as 5 species of snakes. These are the “aniliastos” (Typhlops vermicularis), which lives underground and is an ant-eater, the “agiofido” (Telescopus fallax fallax), the “lafitis” (Elaphe quatuorlineata muenteri), etc. All of the above prove to be harmless to humans and are observed both in Mykonos and Delos. Exceptions are the “water snake” (Natrix natrix Schweizer), as a particularly rare species that appears only in Mykonos, and the astritis or dritis or beast, which is differentiated only due to its venomous nature, which in few cases has proven fatal (n.d., 1996)
Finally, regarding insects, several species accumulate on dry stone walls in Spring and Autumn to spend the period of winter dormancy. Examples include ladybugs, various species of butterflies, and snails.
Goals & Benefits
The goals and multiple benefits of creating terraces are summarized, based on the book “Cultivation Terraces” (Petanidou, 2021), as follows:
- smoothing of steep slopes to create arable land
- control of surface water erosion and soil retention
- creation of soil for cultivation even by transferring it from elsewhere
- redistribution and equal distribution of soil material for better yields, mainly on limestone where cultivable soil tends to accumulate in small pockets
- increasing field productivity by removing stones which are used for building dry stone elements
- more effective root penetration into the soil, especially for tree species such as olives
- creation of a variety of microclimates throughout the field depending on the angle of incidence of solar rays, the windward or leeward of the micro-position, the humidity ensured by the individual structures and walls
- easy access to the peaks from the lower points of the hills
- assistance in water infiltration into the soil and consequently enrichment of underground aquifers
- reduction of the severity and risk of floods, as well as the probability of torrential phenomena after heavy rainfall
- reduction of the probability of landslides
We observe that the benefits of dry stone walls are multiple for nature, the ecosystem, humans, and the microclimate of each area. These benefits will be studied and analyzed in detail with particular emphasis on Mykonos. However, in this deliverable, it is also useful to mention their natural and cultural value. According to the “NATIONAL INVENTORY OF INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF GREECE” and specifically the “INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE ELEMENT RECORD – THE ART OF DRY STONE WALLING” and regarding its cultural value: “Dry stone walling is a cultural choice and the presence of dry stone structures socializes space. The cultural value of these structures is also related to the growing awareness in our days that this specific know-how and its works are part of the cultural heritage of local communities in Greece”. In the same source, we find the various names that dry stone walls receive across regions. More specifically, these are: “lithozonar”, “aimasies” in Andros, “chalakia” in Naxos, “damakia” in Paros, “trafoi”, “paravolia” and “lourides” in Crete, “vastadia” or “vastaoi” in Nisyros, “chtia” or “ochtia” in Amorgos.
The Construction of Dry Stone Walls
The stones used in a dry stone wall are mainly unprocessed (raw), plate-like in shape. In antiquity, it was the main method of constructing important monuments (ancient temples, walls, etc.), which was done according to the isodomic building system with hewn stones, as well as in less valuable structures. In dry stone walling, in the absence of mortar, the strength of the construction depends on the good fitting of the stones, with the smallest possible gaps, in which small stones (chips) are wedged.
The microclimate formed between dry stone walls
Photo: Anneta Papoutsa
In Mykonos, the usual rock was granite. Constructively, the larger stones with flat surfaces are used as foundation stones and support the total weight of the structure, as their name suggests. Building or connecting stones are the stones that compose the wall and indicatively should not have protrusions and rough surfaces. They ensure the cohesion of the wall and are placed at a height of 40-50 centimeters. The filling stones, known as “wedges”, are small. They serve to “fill” the wall, that is, to cover the gaps between the large stones, ensuring the cohesion and stability of the structure. Furthermore, there are connecting stones, which are elongated and utilized for the successful longitudinal horizontal development of dry stone walls. Similarly, but regarding the development on the vertical axis in Mykonos, old craftsmen used “keys”. That is, they placed certain vertical stones at various points, perpendicular to the horizontal ones. Finally, the covering stones are important. These are the Mykonian “plakômata”, that is, the coping and finishing of the wall, which are often whitewashed and placed upright, flat, or forming a triangular end. Its thickness is about 35cm and the aesthetic result of the whole depends on these. At the same time, they have the ability to prevent animals or humans from crossing the wall from points other than those intended, which are called “stairs”. In sections of the wall, stones are placed protruding 25cm, with a height distance between them of 30cm. Thus, access in and out of the wall is facilitated at points where there are no openings. In special cases of opening construction, the ends of the walls coincide with its cross-section. It is preferred that the initial stone be large and have a width equal to the wall, for stability. In the case of forming corners, the two sections of the work are connected perpendicularly to each other and careful selection of the size and shape of the stones is required. In this process, string and marking prove particularly useful (Michael G., Pagkratiou E., Poulogianni N., 2009).
Construction Methods
Dry stone structures, according to the structural needs they cover, are categorized into different types based on:
the use of the structures
(functions they perform)
their construction method
(structural aspect of the construction)
the appearance of the construction
(quality of material - degree
of processing)
To construct a dry stone wall, approximately 1 ton of stones is needed for each running meter of wall 1 meter high and 70 centimeters thick at the base. In Mykonos, the dry stone structures we encounter include an extensive network of walls – which are used for space demarcation – usually with a height of 0.60m-1.20m, cisterns, threshing floors (surrounded by stones and used for threshing cereals and legumes during May – June, and later for drying figs), old animal pens (voidokelia) with a maximum height of 2.00m. The terrain of the Mykonian landscape is hard and rocky. For the foundation of dry stone walls, the rocky uneven section is removed until a stable base is found to start the construction. They were usually built with inclination and did not require digging. In double-sided walls, large stones are used for foundations which are placed on the back side of the wall, which is vertical compared to the front side that has a greater inclination. The foundation stones can reach up to 1.00m. On medium ground, for creating a dividing wall, they dug 30 centimeters into the ground for the foundation and to prevent the plow that tilled from removing soil from the foundations. At the base of the dry stone wall, they left a small gap so that water could escape.
Building the dry stone wall with rubble masonry.
Photo: Katerina Zouganeli
The walls supporting the ground are slightly inclined to withstand greater pressure. Between the large stones on the inner side of the wall and the ground, smaller stones are placed to aid in water drainage. The difference between retaining walls and free-standing walls is that the stones must be placed perpendicular to the wall. More importance is given to stone selection for the outer wall, which will be visible. The most important are the algal bonding stones, which increase resistance to pressures and are placed approximately every 50 cm in height, spaced apart from each other. The most common type of stone construction encountered is rubble masonry, which is composed of “rough” or unprocessed stones.
In rubble masonry, vertical joints should be avoided during construction, but they should intersect from layer to layer. The sizes of the stones need to be of all kinds. The horizontal joints should create a smooth flow along the entire length of the wall so that the next algal overlying layers can be properly placed (Michael G., Pangratiou E., Poulogianni N., 2009).
There is a range of tools used in the construction process. Initially, the hammer, the mastraka, the pickaxe, and the chisel divide the stones into sizes according to their function and are the first to aid in processing. In the next phase, the comb and the chisel are also, like the previous ones, tools made of steel that help smooth the surfaces of the stones. The “angle” and the “level” ensure the correct placement of the stones and their limitation within the guide strings. Finally, in the special case where binding mortar is used, the “trowel” functions as a spatula with which the mortar material is spread and smoothed. (NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS | SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTS – ENGINEERS)
The foundations should have an indicative thickness of about 75cm and the wall is built gradually every 10 meters. The wooden formwork that serves as a guide for the construction is supported with reinforcing bars in the middle of its length. The string is stabilized at 15cm and extends along the entire length of the construction. Once the first stage of placing the foundation stones is completed, this string is moved and placed 15cm higher, and the process continues with this technique. Dry stone wall maintenance should be done annually. It is not particularly demanding. In general cases, the worker simply needs to check that the stones are in the correct position, without deviating from the guide strings. However, if any point shows significant alterations, then reconstruction with the same stones is required. That is, the total dissolution and recreation – in simple words, the “rebuilding” – of the basic structure with the old stones. The stability of the construction depends on the contact of the stones, the non-aligned joints, the correct placement of wedges, and non-deviation from the guides – strings. The old craftsmen did not use any guide or level but built “by eye”. It is characteristic that the upper layers of the wall are narrower than its base. In recent years, the capping stones have been replaced by the use of concrete.
In the context of a study on the island of Mykonos, it is also necessary to mention the island of Delos. This is the historic island associated with the birth of the God Apollo, the god of light. Delos has been recognized as a UNESCO archaeological park and as a monument of world cultural heritage and nature. The archaeological findings include numerous ancient constructions, many of which are largely preserved to this day, ancient artifacts, decorative (e.g., mosaics) or structural (e.g., columns and retaining walls) elements.
Most buildings are constructed with marble, as are the pavements and walls, creating an iconic landscape. In the rest of the archaeological site, however, where a dense complex of houses and shops unfolds, dry stone walls gain a strong presence in the area. Not only do they define the main road that leads to the ancient theater, but stripped of decorative plasters for the most part, they function as perimeter walls of the buildings. Thus, a densely built complex of interconnected structures is maintained, utilizing all the advantages of dry stone walls in terms of unimpeded, controlled water passage, soil retention, and undisputed durability over time. The technique is similar to that found in Mykonos. These are again single-sided walls. However, the stones are processed in terms of their shape, and rectangular and square shapes are preferred, in contrast to the unprocessed and multi-faceted ones we encountered in the Mykonian countryside. The constructions are carefully completed with many wedges to ensure cohesion (Tsakos, n.d.).
The Dry Stone Craftsmen
The master builders, organized in guilds (bouloukia, isnafia, roufetia), either from nearby areas or from afar, traveled throughout Greece. The most famous stonemasons came from Lagkadia in Arkadia, Epirus (Mastorokhoria), Western Macedonia (Pentalofo), Thrace (Metaxades in Evros), and the Cyclades islands (Anafi, Naxos, Santorini, Tinos, etc.), while knowledge and art were passed down orally from generation to generation. The chief master was responsible for forming the boulouki, directed the work, and was in charge of transactions. The boulouki also included the masters (craftsmen and builders), the triot (assistants), and the mastorochild, i.e., the apprentice children. A coded language (ta mastorika) was used for their communication to safeguard the secrets of their craft, which should not leak outside (ELLET, n.d.).
The art of dry stone walling requires knowledge and time. The method of construction, as the old master craftsmen pass away and there is no particular interest in modern engagement with the subject, falls into oblivion, resulting in a lack of comprehensive and “proper” maintenance of existing structures. Not enough importance is given to educating new craftsmen in traditional techniques, and thus few are now truly and substantially knowledgeable about the subject.
The Art of Dry Stone Walling Today
Dry stone walls are valuable witnesses to a traditional building technique that is lost in time and to continuous human activity. Due to their simplicity, dry stone structures create an aesthetically pleasing result and interact gently with the surrounding environment. Sometimes highly visible and other times more discreet, their value is multifaceted and timeless, and now recognized by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage monument. Until 1950, the maintenance of dry stone walls was included in the annual agricultural activities of the owners. (Michael G., Pangratiou E., Poulogianni N., 2009). However, with the focus of interest now falling on the secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy, and especially with the development of tourism in the 1960s and beyond, Mykonos’ production model changed, and dry stone walls were gradually neglected. This phenomenon is observed in much of the Mediterranean, where constructions often collapse and disintegrate. Their place is now taken by newer, lighter, more economical, and quicker to install fences, such as wire mesh. Thus, the landscape is altered. The soil recedes, and the small biotopes that once formed in the dry stone walls are absent. This gradual abandonment also led to a reduced transfer of construction knowledge from generation to generation. Thus, something that was a cohesive element between families, with roots dating back to antiquity (especially if we consider the island of Delos), begins to fade from the modern era. This caused both a loss of their use in everyday life and in their protection, as from an element that directly served everyday needs, it now constitutes a carrier of memory and tradition, as well as a declared cultural asset.